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Background: Recent research in animal behaviour has contributed to determinehow alignment, turning responses, and changes of speed mediate flocking andschooling interactions in different animal species. Here, we addressspecifically the problem of what interaction responses support differentnearest neighbour configurations in terms of mutual position and distance.Results: We find that the different interaction rules observed in differentanimal species may be a simple consequence of the relative positions thatindividuals assume when they move together, and of the noise inherent with themovement of animals, or associated with tracking inaccuracy. Conclusions: Theanisotropic positioning of individuals with respect to their neighbours, incombination with noise, can explain several aspects of the movement responsesobserved in real animal groups, and should be considered explicitly in futuremodels of flocking and schooling. By making a distinction between interactionresponses involved in maintaining a preferred flock configuration, andinteraction responses directed at changing it, we provide a frame todiscriminate movement interactions that signal directional conflict from thoseunderlying consensual group motion.

A note on the duality between interaction responses and mutual positions in flocking and schooling