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Background  Intestinal schistosomiasis was not considered endemic in Lake Malawi until November 2017 when populations of  Biomphalaria pfeifferi  were first reported; in May 2018, emergence of intestinal schistosomiasis was confirmed. This emergence was in spite of ongoing control of urogenital schistosomiasis by preventive chemotherapy. Our current study sought to ascertain whether intestinal schistosomiasis is transitioning from emergence to outbreak, to judge if stepped-up control interventions are needed.    Methods  During late-May 2019, three cross-sectional surveys of primary school children for schistosomiasis were conducted using a combination of rapid diagnostic tests, parasitological examinations and applied morbidity-markers; 1) schistosomiasis dynamics were assessed at Samama ( n  = 80) and Mchoka ( n  = 80) schools, where  Schistosoma mansoni  was first reported, 2) occurrence of  S. mansoni  was investigated at two non-sampled schools, Mangochi Orphan Education and Training (MOET) ( n  = 60) and Koche ( n  = 60) schools, where  B. pfeifferi  was nearby, and 3) rapid mapping of schistosomiasis, and  B. pfeifferi , conducted across a further 8 shoreline schools ( n  = 240). After data collection, univariate analyses and Chi-square testing were performed, followed by binary logistic regression using generalized linear models, to investigate epidemiological associations.    Results  In total, 520 children from 12 lakeshore primary schools were examined, mean prevalence of  S. mansoni  by ‘positive’ urine circulating cathodic antigen (CCA)-dipsticks was 31.5% (95% confidence interval [ CI ]: 27.5–35.5). Upon comparisons of infection prevalence in May 2018, significant increases at Samama (relative risk [RR] = 1.7, 95%  CI : 1.4–2.2) and Mchoka (RR = 2.7, 95%  CI : 1.7–4.3) schools were observed. Intestinal schistosomiasis was confirmed at MOET (18.3%) and Koche (35.0%) schools, and in all rapid mapping schools, ranging from 10.0 to 56.7%. Several populations of  B. pfeifferi  were confirmed, with two new eastern shoreline locations noted. Mean prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis was 24.0% (95%  CI : 20.3–27.7).    Conclusions  We notify that intestinal schistosomiasis, once considered non-endemic in Lake Malawi, is now transitioning from emergence to outbreak. Once control interventions can resume after coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) suspensions, we recommend stepped-up preventive chemotherapy, with increased community-access to treatments, alongside renewed efforts in appropriate environmental control.

infectious diseases of poverty

An outbreak of intestinal schistosomiasis, alongside increasing urogenital schistosomiasis prevalence, in primary school children on the shoreline of Lake Malawi, Mangochi District, Malawi