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Background  Obligate bacterial primary (P-) endosymbionts that are maternally inherited and codiverge with hosts are widespread across insect lineages with nutritionally restricted diets. Secondary (S-) endosymbionts are mostly facultative, but in some hosts, they complement P-endosymbiont function and therefore become obligate. Phylogenetic evidence exists for host switching and replacement of S-endosymbionts. The community dynamics that precede endosymbiont replacement and complementation have been little studied across host species, yet they are fundamental to the evolution of endosymbiosis.    Results  We performed bacterial 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing of 25 psyllid species (Hemiptera, Psylloidea) across different developmental stages and ecological niches by focusing on the characterisation of the bacteria other than the universally present P-endosymbiont  Carsonella  (Gammaproteobacteria). Most species harboured only one dominant representative of diverse gammaproteobacterial S-endosymbionts that was consistently detected across all host individuals and populations ( Arsenophonus  in eight species,  Sodalis  or  Sodalis -like bacteria in four species, unclassified Enterobacteriaceae in eight species). The identity of this dominant obligate S-endosymbiont varied across closely related host species. Unexpectedly, five psyllid species had two or three co-occurring endosymbiont species other than  Carsonella  within all host individuals, including a  Rickettsiella -like bacterium (Gammaproteobacteria) in one psyllid species. Based on standard and quantitative PCR, all psyllids carried  Carsonella , at higher titres than their dominant S-endosymbionts. Some psyllids also had Alphaproteobacteria ( Lariskella ,  Rickettsia ,  Wolbachia ) at varying prevalence. Incidence of other bacteria, including known plant pathogens, was low. Ecological niche of gall-forming, lerp-forming and free-living psyllid species did not impact endosymbiont communities. Two flush-feeding psyllid species had population-specific differences, and this was attributable to the higher endosymbiont diversity in native ranges and the absence of some endosymbionts in invasive ranges.    Conclusions  Our data support the hypothesis of strict vertical transmission of minimal core communities of bacteria in psyllids. We also found evidence for S-endosymbiont replacement across closely related psyllid species. Multiple dominant S-endosymbionts present in some host species, including at low titre, constitute potential examples of incipient endosymbiont complementation or replacement. Our multiple comparisons of deep-sequenced minimal insect bacterial communities exposed the dynamics involved in shaping insect endosymbiosis.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0276-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Symbionts in waiting: the dynamics of incipient endosymbiont complementation and replacement in minimal bacterial communities of psyllids