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Within global efforts to improve human wellbeing and conserve biodiversity there is increasing interest in resolving conflicts between these goals and achieving win–win outcomes. In fact, these win–win outcomes are viewed as fundamental to achieving sustainability goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Consequently a variety of actors, intergovernmental, governmental, non-governmental and private are funding and/or implementing interventions (projects) in the field with the twin objectives of improving human wellbeing and conserving biodiversity. A range of interventions has been implemented, such as community-based management of natural resources, payment for ecosystem services and alternative livelihoods. Some projects have now been running for decades whilst others are very recent. All are aimed at influencing human behaviour and enabling community change that both improves human health, income, social capital etc and impacts positively on biodiversity either directly (e.g. through creating incentive to conserve to provide income) or indirectly (e.g. through decreasing pressure on natural resources). Although these actors can generally point to one or two examples where their interventions appear to work, there is an alarming lack of systematic evaluation and synthesis of evidence for their effectiveness. Given the level of investment and the importance of achieving these goals it is interesting to ask why the accumulation of rigorous evidence is so poor. The funding landscape is complex but some of the typi cal funders of these projects are: 1. Intergovernmental agencies of the World Bank and United Nations which are in turn funded by National Governments (tax payers). Often their funding is matched by private sources. 2. International non-governmental organisations such as conservation or international development notfor-profit organisations (NGOs). Their funding in turn comes from members and donors but also from 1 to 3. 3. Private donors (philanthropists) who may fund directly or through 1 and 2 above 4. National Government agencies using tax payers money.

Why is the evidence base for effectiveness of win–win interventions to benefit humans and biodiversity so poor?