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The circadian oscillations of muscle genes are controlled either directly by the intrinsic muscle clock or by extrinsic factors, such as feeding, hormonal signals, or neural influences, which are in turn regulated by the central pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. A unique feature of circadian rhythms in skeletal muscle is motor neuron-dependent contractile activity, which can affect the oscillation of a number of muscle genes independently of the muscle clock. The role of the intrinsic muscle clock has been investigated using different  Bmal1  knockout (KO) models. A comparative analysis of these models reveals that the dramatic muscle wasting and premature aging caused by global conventional KO are not present in muscle-specific  Bmal1  KO or in global  Bmal1  KO induced in the adult, therefore must reflect the loss of  Bmal1  function during development in non-muscle tissues. On the other hand, muscle-specific  Bmal1  knockout causes impaired muscle glucose uptake and metabolism, supporting a major role of the muscle clock in anticipating the sleep-to-wake transition, when glucose becomes the predominant fuel for the skeletal muscle.

The functional significance of the skeletal muscle clock: lessons from Bmal1 knockout models