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Background  The existing reports about intergenerational or transgenerational effects of intrauterine hyperglycemia have included both intrauterine and postnatal metabolic exposure factors, while the impact of intrauterine hyperglycemia per se has not been assessed alone. A number of studies suggest DNA methylation reprogramming of gametes plays a crucial role in the metabolic inheritance, but it is unclear when and how DNA methylation patterns are altered when exposed to intrauterine hyperglycemia. In this study, we selected nondiabetic F1- and F2-gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) male mice as founders to examine metabolic changes in the next generation and performed methylome sequencing of day 13.5 primordial germ cells (PGCs) from F1-GDM to explore the underlying epigenetic mechanism.    Results  We found that intrauterine hyperglycemia exposure resulted in obesity, insulin resistance, and/or glucose intolerance in F2 male mice, but no metabolic changes in F3 male mice at 8 weeks. Using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing, we found DNA methylome of day 13.5 PGCs from F1-GDM fetuses revealed differently methylated genes enriched in obesity and diabetes. Methylation validation of the insulin resistance and fat accumulation gene  Fyn  showed a consistent hypomethylation status in F1 PGCs, F1 fetal testes, sperm from F1/C-GDM mice, and somatic cells from F2-GDM male mice. In contrast, no methylation alteration was observed in F2-GDM male germ cells and F3-GDM somatic cells.    Conclusion  We provide evidence that intrauterine hyperglycemia exposure per se contributes to intergenerational metabolic changes in the F2 but not F3 generation. And the aberrant DNA methylation reprogramming occurs as early as day 13.5 in PGCs of the F1 generation. Our findings suggest that intrauterine exposure alone is sufficient to cause the epigenetic inheritance in F2 offspring, and the epigenetic memory carried by DNA methylation pattern could be erased by the second wave of methylation reprogramming in F2 PGCs during fetal development.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s13072-018-0192-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Intrauterine hyperglycemia exposure results in intergenerational inheritance via DNA methylation reprogramming on F1 PGCs