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Background Cameroon is considering the implementation of indoor residual spraying (IRS) as a complementary measure to control malaria in the context of high pyrethroid resistance in major malaria vectors. Non-pyrethroid insecticide classes such as organophosphates and carbamates may be utilized in IRS due to widespread pyrethroid resistance. However, the success of this strategy depends on good knowledge of the resistance status of malaria vectors to carbamates and organophosphates. Here, we assessed the susceptibility profile of  Anopheles gambiae  sensu lato with respect to carbamates and organophosphate and the distribution of the molecular mechanism underlying resistance to these insecticides. Methods Anopheles gambiae  s.l. mosquitoes were collected from nine settings across the country and bio-assayed with bendiocarb, propoxur and pirimiphos-methyl. The  Ace-1  target-site G119S mutation was genotyped using a TaqMan assay. To investigate the polymorphism in the  Ace-1  gene, a region of 924 base pairs in a sequence of the gene was amplified from both live and dead females of  An. gambiae  exposed to bendiocarb. Results Pirimiphos-methyl induced full mortality in  An. gambiae  s.l. from all study sites, whereas for carbamates, resistance was observed in four localities, with the lowest mortality rate recorded in Mangoum (17.78 ± 5.02% for bendiocarb and 18.61 ± 3.86% for propoxur) in the southern part of Cameroon.  Anopheles coluzzii  was found to be the predominant species in the northern tropical part of the country where it is sympatric with  Anopheles arabiensis . In the localities situated in southern equatorial regions, this species was predominant in urban settings, while  An. gambiae  was the most abundant species in rural areas. The G119S  Ace-1  target-site mutation was detected only in  An. gambiae  and only in the sites located in southern Cameroon. Phylogenetic analyses showed a clustering according to the phenotype. Conclusion The occurrence of the  Ace-1  target-site substitution G119S in  An. gambiae  s.l. populations highlights the challenge associated with the impending deployment of IRS in Cameroon using carbamates or organophosphates. It is therefore important to think about a resistance management plan including the use of other insecticide classes such as neonicotinoids or pyrrole to guarantee the implementation of IRS in Cameroon. Graphical Abstract

parasites and vectors

Distribution of acetylcholinesterase (Ace-1R) target-site G119S mutation and resistance to carbamates and organophosphates in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato populations from Cameroon