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Background  CD4 +  T helper (Th) cells play critical roles in both host humoral and cellular immunity against parasitic infection and in the immunopathology of schistosomiasis. T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are a specialized subset of Th cells involved in immunity against infectious diseases. However, the role of Tfh cells in schistosome infection is not fully understood. In this study, the dynamics and roles of Tfh cell regulation were examined. We demonstrated that granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (G-MDSC) can suppress the proliferation of Tfh cells.    Methods  The levels of Tfh cells and two other Th cells (Th1, Th2) were quantitated at different  Schistosoma japonicum  infection times (0,3, 5, 8, 13 weeks) using flow cytometry. The proliferation of Tfh cells stimulated by soluble egg antigen (SEA) and soluble worm antigen (SWA) in vivo and in vitro were analyzed. Tfh cells were co-cultured with MDSC to detect the proliferation of Tfh cells labelled by 5(6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate  N -succinimidyl ester. We dynamically monitored the expression of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) on the surface of Tfh cells and programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) on the surface of MDSC at different infection times (0, 3, 5, 8 weeks). Naïve CD4 +  T cells (in Tfh cell differentiation) were co-cultured with G-MDSC or monocytic MDSC in the presence, or in the absence, of PD-L1 blocking antibody.    Results  The proportion of Tfh cells among CD4 +  T cells increased gradually with time of  S. japonicum  infection, reaching a peak at 8 weeks, after which it decreased gradually. Both SEA and SWA caused an increase in Tfh cells in vitro and in vivo. It was found that MDSC can suppress the proliferation of Tfh cells. The expression of PD-1 on Tfh cells and PD-L1 from MDSC cells increased with prolongation of the infection cycle. G-MDSC might regulate Tfh cells through the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway.    Conclusions  The reported study not only reveals the dynamics of Tfh cell regulation during  S. japonicum  infection ,  but also provides evidence that G-MDSC may regulate Tfh cells by PD-1/PD-L1. This study provides strong evidence for the important role of Tfh cells in the immune response to  S. japonicum  infection.    Graphical abstract

Granulocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells inhibit T follicular helper cells during experimental Schistosoma japonicum infection