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Background   Toxoplasma gondii  is a parasite that primarily infects through the oral route. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors (NLRs) play crucial roles in the immune responses generated during parasitic infection and also drive the inflammatory response against invading parasites. However, little is known about the regulation of NLRs and inflammasome activation in  T. gondii -infected human small intestinal epithelial (FHs 74 Int) cells.    Methods  FHs 74 Int cells infected with  T. gondii  were subsequently evaluated for morphological changes, cytotoxicity, expression profiles of NLRs, inflammasome components, caspase-cleaved interleukins (ILs), and the mechanisms of NLRP3 and NLRP6 inflammasome activation. Immunocytochemistry, lactate dehydrogenase assay, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), real-time quantitative RT-PCR, and western blotting techniques were utilized for analysis.    Results  Under normal and  T. gondii -infected conditions, members of the NLRs, inflammasome components and caspase-cleaved ILs were expressed in the FHs Int 74 cells, except for NLRC3, NLRP5, and NLRP9. Among the NLRs, mRNA expression of  NOD2 ,  NLRP3 ,  NLRP6 , and  NAIP1  was significantly increased in  T. gondii -infected cells, whereas that of  NLRP2 ,  NLRP7 , and  CIITA  mRNAs decreased significantly in a time-dependent manner. In addition,  T. gondii  infection induced NLRP3, NLRP6 and NLRC4 inflammasome activation and production of IL-1β, IL-18, and IL-33 in FHs 74 Int cells.  T. gondii -induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation was strongly associated with the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK; however, JNK1/2 had a weak effect. NLRP6 inflammasome activation was not related to the MAPK pathway in FHs 74 Int cells.    Conclusions  This study highlighted the expression profiles of NLRs and unraveled the underlying mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in  T. gondii -infected FHs 74 Int cells. These findings may contribute to understanding of the mucosal and innate immune responses induced by the NLRs and inflammasomes during  T. gondii  infection in FHs 74 Int cells.

parasites and vectors

Expression profiles of NOD-like receptors and regulation of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in Toxoplasma gondii-infected human small intestinal epithelial cells