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Background  Insecticide resistance is a growing concern for malaria control and vector control effectiveness relies on assessing it distribution and understanding its evolution.    Methods  We assessed resistance levels and the frequencies of two major target-site mutations, L1014F-VGSC and G119S- ace-1 , conferring resistance to pyrethroids (PYRs) and carbamates/organophosphates (CXs/OPs) insecticides. These data were compared to those acquired between 2006 and 2010 to follow resistance evolutionary trends over ten years.    Results  We report the results of a 3-year survey (2013–2015) of insecticide resistance in 13 localities across the whole country of Benin. Permethrin (PYR) resistance was found in all populations tested, L1014F-VGSC being almost fixed everywhere, while bendiocarb resistance was limited to a few localities, G119S- ace-1  remaining rare, with very limited variations during surveyed period. Interestingly, we found no effect of the type of insecticide pressure on the dynamics of these mutations.    Conclusions  These results confirm both the high prevalence of PYR resistance and the potential of CXs/OPs as short- to medium-term alternatives in Benin. They also underline the need for regular resistance monitoring and informed management in their usage, as the G119S- ace-1  mutation is already present in Benin and surrounding countries. Their unwise usage would rapidly lead to its spread, which would jeopardize PYR-resistant  Anopheles  control.

Dynamic of resistance alleles of two major insecticide targets in Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) populations from Benin, West Africa