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Background  Birds can act as reservoirs of tick-borne pathogens and can also disperse pathogen-containing ticks to both nearby and remote localities. The aims of this study were to estimate tick infestation patterns on migratory birds and the prevalence of different  Borrelia  species and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) in ticks removed from birds in south-eastern Sweden.    Methods  Ticks were collected from resident and migratory birds captured at the Ottenby Bird Observatory, Öland, Sweden, from March to November 2009. Ticks were molecularly identified to species, and morphologically to developmental stage, and the presence of  Borrelia  bacteria and TBEV was determined by quantitative real-time PCR.    Results  A total of 1339 ticks in the genera  Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma , and  Ixodes  was recorded of which  I. ricinus  was the most abundant species. Important tick hosts were the European robin ( Erithacus rubecula ), Blackbird ( Turdus merula ), Tree pipit ( Anthus trivialis ), Eurasian wren ( Troglodytes troglodytes ) ,  Common redstart ( Phoenicurus phoenicurus ) ,  Willow warbler ( Phylloscopus trochilus ), and Common whitethroat ( Sylvia communis ).  Borrelia  bacteria were detected in 25% (285/1,124) of the detached ticks available for analysis. Seven  Borrelia  species ( B. afzelii ,  B. burgdorferi  ( s.s. ),  B. garinii ,  B. lusitaniae ,  B. turdi, B. valaisiana , and  B. miyamotoi ) were identified.  B. turdi  was recorded for the first time in ticks in Sweden. The number of  Borrelia  cells per tick ranged from 2.0 × 10 0  to 7.0 × 10 5 .  B. miyamotoi -containing ticks contained a significantly higher median number of  Borrelia  cells than  B. burgdorferi  ( s.l. )-containing ticks.  B. garinii  and  B. miyamotoi  were the most prevalent  Borrelia  species in tick larvae. Larvae of  I. ricinus  with  B. garinii  were removed from seven bird species, particularly  S. communis  and  A. trivialis , which may suggest that the larvae had contracted the  Borrelia  bacteria from or via these birds. Also, a high percentage of tick larvae containing  B. miyamotoi  was removed from  E. rubecula.  All ticks were negative for TBEV.    Conclusions  The results corroborate the view that the contributions of birds to human disease are substantial, particularly as blood hosts for ticks and for their short-, medium-, and long-distance dispersal. Moreover, several ground-foraging bird species appear to be important for the maintenance and dispersal of  Borrelia  species. The absence of TBEV in the ticks conforms to other similar studies.

parasites and vectors

Migratory birds as disseminators of ticks and the tick-borne pathogens Borrelia bacteria and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus: a seasonal study at Ottenby Bird Observatory in South-eastern Sweden