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Background  In South America, cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) and visceral leishmaniasis (VL) are emerging diseases, expanding in the border area of Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay. Outbreaks of CL were reported since the 1990s, with  Nyssomyia whitmani  as the main vector in this region. Regarding VL, urban reports started in 2010 with  Lutzomyia longipalpis  as the main vector. The aim of this study was to evaluate environmental determinants related to the main vectors of leishmaniasis, to contribute to the prevention and control response to the emergence of VL and CL in the Argentina-Brazil-Paraguay border region.    Methods  The cross-sectional survey includes two cities and two close rural areas in the Argentinean Northeast Region, between November 2014 and January 2015, with a total of 95 sampling sites. REDILA-BL traps were set for three consecutive nights, and a total of 68 meso- and microscale environmental and landscape characteristics were surveyed. The association between vector abundance with different variables was evaluated using a generalized linear model with zero-inflated negative binomial distribution. We analyzed females for detection of  Leishmania  DNA.    Results  The analysis for  Lu. longipalpis  indicates an excess of absences when the mean NDWI around the sites were higher. The abundance of  Lu. longipalpis  at mesoscale level was higher when more urban services were present, and when blood sources such as chickens or dogs at the microscale level were present. For  Ny. whitmani , no variable was found to be associated with the absences, while its abundance increased in association with the following variables: percentage of tree cover, presence of garbage collection service, hosted people and, at microscale, the presence of poultry.  Leshmania infantum  DNA was detected in 2/49 (4%)  Lu. longipalpis .    Conclusions  The abundance of both species is influenced by variables at different scales, their influence probably has a hierarchy and they are acting on different aspects of the biology of these vectors. The urban spatial segregation of  Lu. longipalpis  and the peri-urban and rural segregation of  N. whitmani  increase the risk of VL and CL. The selection of the better variables for each scale will allow the design of appropriate control strategies depending on species.

Multiscale environmental determinants of Leishmania vectors in the urban-rural context