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Background  Malaria was eliminated from Sri Lanka in 2013. However, the influx of infected travelers and the presence of potent anopheline vectors can re-initiate transmission in Jaffna city, which is separated by a narrow strait from the malaria-endemic Indian state of Tamil Nadu.    Methods  Anopheline larvae were collected from different habitats in Jaffna city and the susceptibility of emergent adults to DDT, malathion and deltamethrin investigated.    Results  Anopheline larvae were found in wells, surface-exposed drains, ponds, water puddles and water storage tanks, with many containing polluted, alkaline and brackish water.  Anopheles culicifacies ,  An. subpictus ,  An. stephensi  and  An. varuna  were identified in the collections. Adults of the four anopheline species were resistant to DDT.  Anopheles subpictus  and  An. stephensi  were resistant while  An. culicifacies  and  An. varuna  were possibly resistant to deltamethrin.  Anopheles stephensi  was resistant,  An. subpictus  possibly resistant while  An. varuna  and  An. culicifacies  were susceptible to malathion. DNA sequencing showed a L1014F (TTA to TTC) mutation in the IIS6 transmembrane segment of the voltage-gated sodium channel protein in deltamethrin-resistant  An. subpictus— a mutation previously observed in India but not Sri Lanka.    Conclusion   Anopheles subpictus  in Jaffna, like  An. stephensi , may have recently originated in coastal Tamil Nadu. Besides infected overseas travelers, wind- and boat-borne carriage of  Plasmodium -infected anophelines across the Palk Strait can potentially reintroduce malaria transmission to Jaffna city. Adaptation to diverse larval habitats and resistance to common insecticides in anophelines are identified as potential problems for vector control should this happen.

parasites and vectors

Anopheline bionomics, insecticide resistance and transnational dispersion in the context of controlling a possible recurrence of malaria transmission in Jaffna city in northern Sri Lanka