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Background  Indoor residual spraying (IRS) is the mainstay for vector control intervention of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in India. Little is known on the control effects of IRS on different household types. Here, we assessed if IRS with insecticides has an equal residual and interventional effect on all household types in a village. We also developed a combined spatial-risk map and a sand fly,  Phlebotomus argentipes  density analytical model based on household characteristics, insecticide susceptibility and IRS-status to explore the spatio-temporal distributions of the vector at a micro-scale level.    Methods  This study was carried out in two villages of Mahnar block in Vaishali district, Bihar. IRS using two insecticides [dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT 50%) and synthetic pyrethroid (SP 5%)] was evaluated for VL-vector ( P. argentipes ) control. Temporal residual efficacy of the insecticides on different wall-surface types was evaluated using the cone-bioassay technique according to WHO guidelines. Insecticide susceptibility of local  P. argentipes  was explored using the tube-bioassay method. Pre- and post-IRS sand fly densities were monitored in human dwellings and animal shelters using Centers for Disease Control light-traps installed between 18:00–6:00 h. A best-fit model for sand fly density analysis was developed using multiple logistic regression analysis. Geographical information system based spatial analysis techniques were employed to map the household type distribution of insecticide susceptibility of the vector, and IRS-status of the households to interpret the spatio-temporal distributions of  P. argentipes .    Results   Phlebotomus argentipes  was highly susceptible to SP (100%) but showed high resistance to DDT with a 49.1% mortality rate. SP-IRS has been reported as having better community acceptance than DDT-IRS in all household types. Residual efficacies were varied between wall-surfaces; both insecticides failed to achieve the duration of IRS effectiveness recommended by the WHO. Reduction in  P. argentipes  counts due to SP-IRS was higher than DDT-IRS between household groups (i.e. sprayed and sentinel), in all intervals post-IRS. Combined spatial risk-maps revealed a better control effect of SP-IRS on sand flies than DDT-IRS in all household types risk-zones. The multilevel logistic regression analysis explored five risk-factors that were strongly associated with the density of  P. argentipes .    Conclusions  The results contribute to furthering current understanding of IRS-practices for control of visceral leishmaniasis in endemic Bihar, which may help in future actions for improvements.

parasites and vectors

Assessing the combined effects of household type and insecticide effectiveness for kala-azar vector control using indoor residual spraying: a case study from North Bihar, India