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Background  African trypanosomiases are caused by trypanosomes that are cyclically transmitted by tsetse. Investigations aiming to generate knowledge on the bacterial fauna of tsetse have revealed distinct symbiotic microorganisms. Furthermore, studies addressing the tripartite association between trypanosomes-tsetse-symbionts relationship have so far been contradictory. Most studies included  Sodalis glossinudius  and, consequently, the association involving  Wolbachia  is poorly understood. Understanding the vectorial competence of tsetse requires decrypting these tripartite associations. In this study, we identified  Wolbachia  and trypanosomes in  Glossina palpalis palpalis  from three human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) foci in southern Cameroon.    Methods  Tsetse flies were captured with pyramidal traps in the Bipindi, Campo and Fontem HAT foci. After morphological identification, DNA was extracted from whole tsetse flies and  Wolbachia  and trypanosomes were identified by PCR using different trypanosome-specific primers and two  Wolbachia- specific primers ( Wolbachia  surface protein and  16S  rRNA genes). Statistical analyses were performed to compare the trypanosome and  Wolbachia  infection rates between villages and different foci and to look for an association between these microorganisms.    Results  From a total of 2122 tsetse flies, 790  G. p. palpalis  were analyzed. About 25.32% of flies hosted  Wolbachia  and 31.84% of non-teneral flies were infected by at least one trypanosome species. There was no significant difference between the global  Wolbachia  prevalence revealed by the two markers while some differences were observed between HAT foci. From 248  G. p. palpalis  with trypanosome infections, 62.90% were with  T. vivax , 34.68% with  T. congolense  forest, 16.13% with  T. brucei  ( s.l. ) and 2.42% with  T. congolense  savannah. Of all trypanosome-infected flies, 29.84% hosted  Wolbachia  and no association was observed between  Wolbachia  and trypanosome co-infections.    Conclusions  This study revealed differences in the prevalence of  Wolbachia  and trypanosomes in  G. p. palpalis  according to HAT foci .  The use of only one marker has underestimated the prevalence of  Wolbachia , thus more markers in subsequent studies may improve its detection. The presence of  Wolbachia  seems to have no impact on the establishment of trypanosomes in  G. p. palpalis . The tripartite association between tsetse,  Wolbachia  and trypanosomes varies according to studied areas. Studies aiming to evaluate the genetic polymorphism of  Wolbachia  and its density in tsetse flies could help to better understand this association.

parasites and vectors

Detection of Wolbachia and different trypanosome species in Glossina palpalis palpalis populations from three sleeping sickness foci of southern Cameroon