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Background   Toxoplasma gondii  and  Eimeria tenella  are two common parasites in poultry. Mixed infections are likely to occur frequently in chickens due to the high prevalence of both pathogens. In this study, we investigate the co-occurrence of the two pathogens in the same immunocompetent host cell population towards potential parasite-parasite as well as altered patterns of parasite-host interactions.    Methods  Primary macrophages from chicken blood were co-infected  in vitro  with  T. gondii  tachyzoites (RH strain) and  E. tenella  sporozoites (Houghton strain) for 72 h. Morphological observations by light microscopy and assessments of parasite replication by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) were performed at 24, 48 and 72 h post-infection (hpi). Six host cell immune factors previously linked to  T. gondii  or  E. tenella  infection were selected for gene expression analysis in this study.    Results  Distinct morphological changes of macrophages were observed during mixed infection at 24 hpi and immunological activation of host cells was obvious. Macrophage mRNA expression for iNOS at 48 hpi and for TNF-α at 72 hpi were significantly elevated after mixed infection. Distinct upregulation of IL-10 was also present during co-infection compared to  Eimeria  mono-infection at 48 and 72 hpi. At 72 hpi, the total number of macrophages as well as the number of both parasites decreased markedly. As measured by qPCR,  E. tenella  population tended to increase during  T. gondii  co-infection, while  T. gondii  replication was not distinctly altered.    Conclusions  Mutual interactions of  T. gondii  and  E. tenella  were observed in the selected co-infection model. The interactions are supposed to be indirect considering the observed changes in host cell metabolism. This study would thus help understanding the course of co-infection in chickens that may be relevant in terms of veterinary and zoonotic considerations.

Mutual interactions of the apicomplexan parasites Toxoplasma gondii and Eimeria tenella with cultured poultry macrophages