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Background  Recent studies have described natural human infections of the non-human primate parasites  Plasmodium knowlesi  and  Plasmodium cynomolgi . In Southeast Asia, mosquitoes of the  Anopheles leucosphyrus  group bite both humans and monkeys in the forest and thus offer a possible route for  Plasmodium  species to bridge the species barrier. In this study we analysed the species composition of malarial sporozoites infecting the salivary glands of  Anopheles dirus  in order to determine their potential role as bridge vectors of  Plasmodium  parasites from monkeys to humans.    Methods  Mosquitoes were collected in the forest and forest fringe area of Khanh Phu commune by human-baited landing collection.  Anopheles  species were determined on the basis of morphologic features. Sporozoite-infected salivary glands were applied to filter paper and dried in an ambient atmosphere, before storage in closed vials at 4–6 °C. Detection and identification of  Plasmodium  species in salivary glands were carried out by nested-PCR of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene.    Results  Six species of  Plasmodium  parasites were detected by PCR, of which  P. vivax  was the most common, followed by  P. knowlesi ,  P. inui ,  P. cynomolgi ,  P. coatneyi  and  P. falciparum . Twenty-six of the 79 sporozoite infected mosquitoes showed multiple infections, most of which were a combination of  P. vivax  with one or more of the non-human primate  Plasmodium  species.    Conclusions  These results suggest that humans overnighting in this forest are frequently inoculated with both human and non-human primate malaria parasites, leading to a situation conducive for the emergence of novel zoonotic malaria.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-0995-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

parasites and vectors

Humans frequently exposed to a range of non-human primate malaria parasite species through the bites of Anopheles dirus mosquitoes in South-central Vietnam