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Background  We recently confirmed that the deactivation of  T. reesei  cellulases at the air–liquid interface reduces microcrystalline cellulose conversion at low enzyme loadings in shaken flasks. It is one of the main causes for lowering of cellulose conversions at low enzyme loadings. However, supplementing cellulases with small quantities of surface-active additives in shaken flasks can increase cellulose conversions at low enzyme loadings. It was also shown that cellulose conversions at low enzyme loadings can be increased in unshaken flasks if the reactions are carried for a longer time. This study further explores these recent findings to better understand the impact of air–liquid interfacial phenomena on enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose contained in Avicel, Sigmacell, α-cellulose, cotton linters, and filter paper. The impacts of solids and enzyme loadings, supplementation with nonionic surfactant Tween 20 and xylanases, and application of different types of mixing and reactor designs on cellulose hydrolysis were also evaluated.    Results  Avicel cellulose conversions at high solid loading were more than doubled by minimizing loss of cellulases to the air–liquid interface. Maximum cellulose conversions were high for surface-active supplemented shaken flasks or unshaken flasks because of low cellulase deactivation at the air–liquid interface. The nonionic surfactant Tween 20 was unable to completely prevent cellulase deactivation in shaken flasks and only reduced cellulose conversions at unreasonably high concentrations.    Conclusions  High dynamic interfacial areas created through baffles in reactor vessels, low volumes in high-capacity vessels, or high shaking speeds severely limited cellulose conversions at low enzyme loadings. Precipitation of cellulases due to aggregation at the air–liquid interface caused their continuous deactivation in shaken flasks and severely limited solubilization of cellulose.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s13068-019-1439-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Impacts of cellulase deactivation at the moving air–liquid interface on cellulose conversions at low enzyme loadings