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Background   l -Histidine biosynthesis is embedded in an intertwined metabolic network which renders microbial overproduction of this amino acid challenging. This is reflected in the few available examples of histidine producers in literature. Since knowledge about the metabolic interplay is limited, we systematically perturbed the metabolism of  Corynebacterium glutamicum  to gain a holistic understanding in the metabolic limitations for  l -histidine production. We, therefore, constructed  C. glutamicum  strains in a modularized metabolic engineering approach and analyzed them with LC/MS-QToF-based systems metabolic profiling (SMP) supported by flux balance analysis (FBA).    Results  The engineered strains produced  l -histidine, equimolar amounts of glycine, and possessed heavily decreased intracellular adenylate concentrations, despite a stable adenylate energy charge. FBA identified regeneration of ATP from 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) as crucial step for  l -histidine production and SMP identified strong intracellular accumulation of inosine monophosphate (IMP) in the engineered strains. Energy engineering readjusted the intracellular IMP and ATP levels to wild-type niveau and reinforced the intrinsic low ATP regeneration capacity to maintain a balanced energy state of the cell. SMP further indicated limitations in the C 1  supply which was overcome by expression of the glycine cleavage system from  C. jeikeium . Finally, we rerouted the carbon flux towards the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway thereby further increasing product yield to 0.093 ± 0.003 mol  l -histidine per mol glucose.    Conclusion  By applying the modularized metabolic engineering approach combined with SMP and FBA, we identified an intrinsically low ATP regeneration capacity, which prevents to maintain a balanced energy state of the cell in an  l -histidine overproduction scenario and an insufficient supply of C 1  units. To overcome these limitations, we provide a metabolic engineering strategy which constitutes a general approach to improve the production of ATP and/or C 1  intensive products.

Modular systems metabolic engineering enables balancing of relevant pathways for l-histidine production with Corynebacterium glutamicum