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Background  Population genetic theory predicts that rapid adaptation is largely driven by complex traits encoded by many loci of small effect. Because large-effect loci are quickly fixed in natural populations, they should not contribute much to rapid adaptation.    Results  To investigate the genetic architecture of thermal adaptation — a highly complex trait — we performed experimental evolution on a natural  Drosophila simulans  population. Transcriptome and respiration measurements reveal extensive metabolic rewiring after only approximately 60 generations in a hot environment. Analysis of genome-wide polymorphisms identifies two interacting selection targets,  Sestrin  and  SNF4Aγ , pointing to AMPK, a central metabolic switch, as a key factor for thermal adaptation.    Conclusions  Our results demonstrate that large-effect loci segregating at intermediate allele frequencies can allow natural populations to rapidly respond to selection. Because  SNF4Aγ  also exhibits clinal variation in various  Drosophila  species, we suggest that this large-effect polymorphism is maintained by temporal and spatial temperature variation in natural environments.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s13059-018-1503-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A simple genetic basis of adaptation to a novel thermal environment results in complex metabolic rewiring in Drosophila