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Background  Heavy tobacco smoking, a hallmark feature of lung cancer, is drastically predominant in Middle Eastern populations. The precise links between nicotine dependence and the functional contribution of the oral microbiota remain unknown in these populations.    Methods  We evaluated the composition and functional capabilities of oral microbiota with relation to cigarette smoking in 105 adults through shotgun metagenomics using buccal swabs.    Results  The oral microbiota composition in our study subjects was dominated by the phyla  Firmicutes ,  Proteobacteria ,  Actinobacteria , and  Bacteroidetes , in addition to the genera  Prevotella  and  Veillonella,  similar to previously described westernized cohorts. Furthermore, the smoker's oral microbiota represented a significant abundance of  Veillonella dispar ,  Leptotrichia  spp. and  Prevotella pleuritidis  when compared to non-smokers. Within the smoking groups, differential relative abundance testing unveiled relative abundance of  Streptobacillus hongkongensis ,  Fusobacterium massiliense ,  Prevotella bivia  in high nicotine dependent compared to low nicotine dependent profiles based on Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence. Functional profiling showed marked differences between smokers and non-smokers. Smokers exhibited an enrichment of Tricarballylate utilization and Lactate racemization when compared to the non-smokers. According to their nicotine dependence, enrichment of Xanthosine utilization, p-Aminobenzoyl-Glutamate utilization, and multidrug efflux pump in  Campylobacter jejuni  biosynthesis modules were detected in the high nicotine dependent group.    Conclusions  These compositional and functional differences may provide critical insight on how variations in the oral microbiota could predispose to respiratory illnesses and smoke cessation relapse in cigarette smokers. In particular, the observed enrichment of  Fusobacterium  and  Prevotella  in the oral microbiota possibly suggests an intriguing linkage to gut and lung cancers.

Revealing oral microbiota composition and functionality associated with heavy cigarette smoking