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Background  The results showed that the deciding factor is the culture medium in which the bacteria and the graphene oxide (GO) are incubated at the initial manipulation step. These findings allow better use of GO and GO-based materials more and be able to clearly apply them in the field of biomedical nanotechnology.    Results  To study the use of GO sheets applied in the field of biomedical nanotechnology, this study determines whether GO-based materials [GO, GO-polyoxyalkyleneamine (POAA), and GO-chitosan] stimulate or inhibit bacterial growth in detail. It is found that it depends on whether the bacteria and GO-based materials are incubated with a nutrient at the initial step. This is a critical factor for the fortune of bacteria. GO stimulates bacterial growth and microbial proliferation for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and might also provide augmented surface attachment for both types of bacteria. When an external barrier that is composed of GO-based materials forms around the surface of the bacteria, it suppresses nutrients that are essential to microbial growth and simultaneously produces oxidative stress, which causes bacteria to die, regardless of whether they have an outer-membrane-Gram-negative-bacteria or lack an outer-membrane-Gram-positive-bacteria, even for high concentrations of biocompatible GO-POAA. The results also show that these GO-based materials are capable of inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent oxidative stress on bacteria. Besides, GO-based materials may act as a biofilm, so it is hypothesized that they suppress the toxicity of low-dose chitosan.    Conclusion  Graphene oxide is not an antimicrobial material but it is a general growth enhancer that can act as a biofilm to enhance bacterial attachment and proliferation. However, GO-based materials are capable of inducing ROS-dependent oxidative stress on bacteria. The applications of GO-based materials can clearly be used in antimicrobial surface coatings, surface-attached stem cells for orthopedics, antifouling for biocides and microbial fuel cells and microbial electro-synthesis.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s12951-017-0328-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Graphene oxide conjugated with polymers: a study of culture condition to determine whether a bacterial growth stimulant or an antimicrobial agent?