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Background  Malaria, one of the world’s greatest public health challenges, is an endemic disease with stable transmission in Togo. Combating malaria requires an effective vector control. This study provides temporal data on insecticide resistance status in the major malaria vector  Anopheles gambiae  sensu lato (s.l.) from Togo.    Methods  Two to 5 days old females of  An. gambiae  s.l., originating from three localities (Baguida, Kovié, Kolokopé) were subjected to insecticide-impregnated papers during 3 years (2012, 2013, 2016) as follows: organochlorides (4% DDT), pyrethroids (0.05% deltamethrin, 0.75% permethrin, 0.05% lambdacyhalothrin), carbamates (0.4% bendiocarb and 0.1% propoxur), and organophosphates (5% malathion, 0.4% chlorpyrifos methyl, 1% fenitrothion) following the WHO standard protocol. Dead and surviving mosquitoes were stored separately in Eppendorf tubes containing silica gel for DNA extraction, species identification, and  kdr  and  ace - 1  genotyping.    Results  Knockdown times (KDT 50  and KDT 95 ) were high in  An. gambiae  s.l. The lowest KDTs were recorded at Baguida in 2013 for deltamethrin (KDT 50  = 24.7, CI [22.4–27.12] and KDT 95  = 90.78, CI [76.35–113.49]). No KDTs were recorded for DDT and in some instances for permethrin. In general,  An. gambiae  s.l. was resistant to most of the four classes of insecticides during the survey periods regardless of locality and year, except to chlorpyrifos methyl. In some instances, mosquitoes were fully susceptible to fenitrothion (Kolokopé: 100% and Kovié: 98.05%, CI [95.82–100.26]) and malathion (100% at both Kolokopé and Kovié) in 2013, and malathion only (Kolokopé; 100%) in 2016.  Anopheles coluzzii ,  An. gambiae  and  Anopheles arabiensis  were the three sibling species identified at the three localities with some hybrids at Baguida (2013), and Kovié (2012 and 2016), respectively.  Anopheles gambiae  was relatively dominant (61.6%). The  kdr  1014F allele frequency was > 0.9 in most of the cases, except at Kolokopé (f (1014F) = 0.63, CI [0.55–0.71]) in 2013. The  kdr  1014S allele frequency was below 0.02. The highest  ace - 1  frequencies were identified in  An. gambiae  at Baguida (2012: 0.52, CI [0.34–0.69] and 2013: 0.66, CI [0.46–0.86]).    Conclusion  The resistance status is worrying in Togo and should be considered in future malaria vector resistance management programmes by decision-makers.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-019-2813-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

malaria journal

Insecticide resistance profiles of Anopheles gambiae s.l. in Togo and genetic mechanisms involved, during 3-year survey: is there any need for resistance management?