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Background    Plasmodium vivax  is considered to be absent from western Africa, where the prevalence of Duffy-negative red blood cell phenotype proves to be high. Several studies have, however, detected  P. vivax  infection cases in this part of Africa, raising the question of what is the actual prevalence of  P. vivax  in local populations.Methods  The presence of  P. vivax  was investigated in a large population of healthy blood donors in Benin using microscopy, serology and molecular detection. The seroprevalence was measured with species-specific ELISA using two recombinant  P. vivax  proteins, namely r Pv MSP1 and r Pv CSP1. Specific molecular diagnosis of  P. vivax  infection was carried out using nested-PCR. The performances and cut-off values of both r Pv CSP1 and r Pv MSP1 ELISA were first assessed using sera from  P. vivax -infected patients and from non-exposed subjects.    Results  Among 1234 Beninese blood donors, no parasites were detected when using microscopy, whereas 28.7% (354/1234) of patients exhibited had antibodies against r Pv MSP1, 21.6% (266/1234) against r Pv CSP1, and 15.2% (187/1234) against both. Eighty-four samples were selected for nested-PCR analyses, of which 13 were positive for  P. vivax  nested-PCR and all Duffy negative.Conclusion  The results of the present study highlight an unexpectedly high exposure of Beninese subjects to  P. vivax , resulting in sub-microscopic infections. This suggests a probably underestimated and insidious parasite presence in western Africa. While the vaccination campaigns and therapeutic efforts are all focused on  Plasmodium falciparum , it is also essential to consider the epidemiological impact of  P. vivax .    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12936-016-1620-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The hide and seek of Plasmodium vivax in West Africa: report from a large-scale study in Beninese asymptomatic subjects