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Background  Growth conditions that bring about stress on  Phaffia rhodozyma  cells encourage the synthesis of astaxanthin, an antioxidant carotenoid, which protects cells against oxidative damage. Using  P. rhodozyma  cultures performed with and without copper limitation, we examined the kinetics of astaxanthin synthesis along with the expression of  asy , the key astaxanthin synthesis gene, as well as  aox , which encodes an alternative oxidase protein.    Results  Copper deficiency had a detrimental effect on the rates of oxygen consumption and ethanol reassimilation at the diauxic shift. In contrast, copper deficiency prompted alcoholic fermentation under aerobic conditions and had a favorable effect on the astaxanthin content of cells, as well as on  aox  expression. Both cultures exhibited strong  aox  expression while consuming ethanol, but particularly when copper was absent.    Conclusion  We show that the induction of either astaxanthin production,  aox  expression, or aerobic fermentation exemplifies the crucial role that redox imbalance plays in triggering any of these phenomena. Based on our own results and data from others, we propose a mechanism that rationalizes the central role played by changes of respiratory activity, which lead to redox imbalances, in triggering both the short-term antioxidant response as well as fermentation in yeasts and other cell types.

A common mechanism explains the induction of aerobic fermentation and adaptive antioxidant response in Phaffia rhodozyma