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Background  In this multidisciplinary study we present soil chemical, phytochemical and GIS spatial patterning evidence that fairy circles studied in three separate locations of Namibia may be caused by  Euphorbia  species.    Results  We show that matrix sand coated with  E. damarana  latex resulted in faster water-infiltration rates. GC-MS analyses revealed that soil from fairy circles and from under decomposing  E. damarana  plants are very similar in phytochemistry.  E. damarana  and  E. gummifera  extracts have a detrimental effect on bacteria isolated from the rhizosphere of  Stipagrostis uniplumis  and inhibit grass seed germination. Several compounds previously identified with antimicrobial and phytotoxic activity were also identified in  E. gummifera.  GIS analyses showed that perimeter sizes and spatial characteristics (Voronoi tessellations, distance to nearest neighbour ratio, pair correlation function and L-function) of fairy circles are similar to those of fairy circles co-occurring with  E. damarana  (northern Namibia), and with  E.   gummifera  (southern Namibia). Historical aerial imagery showed that in a population of 406  E.   gummifera  plants, 134 were replaced by fairy circles over a 50-year period. And finally, by integrating rainfall, altitude and landcover in a GIS-based site suitability model, we predict where fairy circles should occur. The model largely agreed with the distribution of three  Euphorbia  species and resulted in the discovery of new locations of fairy circles, in the far southeast of Namibia and part of the Kalahari Desert of South Africa.    Conclusions  It is proposed that the allelopathic, adhesive, hydrophobic and toxic latex of  E. damarana, E.   gummifera , and possibly other species like  E. gregaria,  is the cause of the fairy circles of Namibia in the areas investigated and possibly in all other areas as well.

bmc ecology

The allelopathic, adhesive, hydrophobic and toxic latex of Euphorbia species is the cause of fairy circles investigated at several locations in Namibia