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Background  Competition within and between social groups determines access to resources and can be inferred from space use parameters that reflect depletion of food resources and competitive abilities of groups. Using location data from 1998 to 2017, we investigated within- and between-group competition in 12 groups of wild mountain gorillas ( Gorilla beringei beringei ). As within-group feeding competition is expected to increase with group size, an increase in group size is predicted to lead to an increase in the size of annual home ranges and core areas, but to a decrease in fidelity (reuse of an area). Due to asymmetries in competitive abilities, larger groups are expected to have higher exclusivity (degree of non-shared space) of annual home ranges and core areas than smaller groups.    Results  We found evidence of within-group feeding competition based on a positive relationship between group size and both annual home range and core area size as well as a negative relationship between group size and core area fidelity. Additionally, fidelity of core areas was lower than of home ranges. Between-group competition was inferred from a trend for groups with more members and more males to have more exclusive home ranges and core areas. Lastly, annual core areas were largely mutually exclusive.    Conclusions  Our study suggests that non-territorial, group-living animals can have highly dynamic, long-term avoidance-based spacing patterns, both temporally and spatially, to maintain annual core area exclusivity among groups while concurrently shifting these areas annually within overlapping home ranges to avoid resource depletion. Despite ranging in larger home ranges and core areas, larger groups were able to maintain more exclusive ranges than smaller groups, suggesting a competitive advantage for larger groups in between-group competition in a non-territorial species. Together, these findings contribute to understanding how social animals make behavioral adjustments to mitigate the effects of intraspecific competition.

Using long-term ranging patterns to assess within-group and between-group competition in wild mountain gorillas