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Background Schistosoma haematobium , soil transmitted helminthes (STH), and malaria lead to a double burden in pregnancy that eventually leads to poor immunity, increased susceptibility to other infections, and poor pregnancy outcomes. Many studies have been carried out on pre-school and school aged children but very little has been done among the at risk adult population including women of reproductive age (WRA). Our current study sought to establish the risk factors and burden of co-infection with  S. haematobium , STH, and  Plasmodium  sp. among WRA in Kwale County, Coastal Kenya. Methods A total of 534 WRA between the ages of 15–50 were enrolled in this cross-sectional study from four villages; Bilashaka and Mwaluphamba in Matuga sub-County, and Mwachinga and Dumbule in Kinango sub-County. Socio-demographic information was collected using a pre-tested standardized questionnaire. Parasitological examination was done using urine filtration method for  Schistosoma haematobium , Kato Katz for STH ( Ascaris lumbricoides , Hookworm,  Trichuris trichiura ), and standard slide microscopy for  Plasmodium  sp. Statistical analyses were carried out using STATA version 15.1. Results The overall prevalence of  S. haematobium  was 3.8% (95% CI: 2.6–5.4) while that for malaria was 4.9% (95% CI: 2.0–11.7). The prevalence of STH was 5.6% (95% CI: 2.8–11.3) with overall prevalence of 5.3% (95% CI: 2.5–10.9) for hookworm and 0.6% (95% CI: 0.2–1.9) for  T. trichiura.  The occurrence of co-infection was low and was recorded between  S. haematobium  and  P. falciparum  (0.6%), followed by  S. haematobium  and STH (0.4%). Among pregnant women, 2.6% had co-infection with  S. haematobium  and  P. falciparum.  Only 1.3% had co-infection with  S. haematobium  and hookworm or  T. trichiura . Among non-pregnant women, co-infection with  S. haematobium  and  P. falciparum  was 0.2%. Similarly, co-infection with  S. haematobium  and hookworm or  T. trichiura  was 0.2%. Bed net ownership and usage among pregnant women was 87.8 and 96.6%, respectively. 66.3% of the women reported using improved water sources for drinking while 78.1% reported using improved sanitation facilities. Conclusion The use of improved WASH activities might have contributed to the low prevalence of STHs and  S. haematobium  infections. Further, bed net ownership and usage might have resulted in the low prevalence of  Plasmodium  sp. infections observed.

bmc public health

Schistosomiasis, soil transmitted helminthiasis, and malaria co-infections among women of reproductive age in rural communities of Kwale County, coastal Kenya