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Background  Legionellosis is caused by the inhalation of aerosolized water contaminated with  Legionella  bacteria. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of  Legionella  species in aerosols collected from outdoor sites near asphalt roads, bathrooms in public bath facilities, and other indoor sites, such as buildings and private homes, using amoebic co-culture, quantitative PCR, and 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing.    Results   Legionella  species were not detected by amoebic co-culture. However,  Legionella  DNA was detected in 114/151 (75.5%) air samples collected near roads (geometric mean ± standard deviation: 1.80 ± 0.52 log 10  copies/m 3 ), which was comparable to the numbers collected from bathrooms [15/21 (71.4%), 1.82 ± 0.50] but higher than those collected from other indoor sites [11/30 (36.7%), 0.88 ± 0.56] ( P  < 0.05). The amount of  Legionella  DNA was correlated with the monthly total precipitation ( r  = 0.56,  P  < 0.01). It was also directly and inversely correlated with the daily total precipitation for seven days ( r  = 0.21,  P  = 0.01) and one day ( r  = − 0.29,  P  < 0.01) before the sampling day, respectively. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing revealed that  Legionella  species were detected in 9/30 samples collected near roads (mean proportion of reads, 0.11%). At the species level,  L. pneumophila  was detected in 2/30 samples collected near roads (the proportion of reads, 0.09 and 0.11% of the total reads number in each positive sample). The three most abundant bacterial genera in the samples collected near roads were  Sphingomonas ,  Streptococcus , and  Methylobacterium  (mean proportion of reads; 21.1%, 14.6%, and 1.6%, respectively). In addition, the bacterial diversity in outdoor environment was comparable to that in indoor environment which contains aerosol-generating features and higher than that in indoor environment without the features.    Conclusions  DNA from  Legionella  species was widely present in aerosols collected from outdoor sites near asphalt roads, especially during the rainy season. Our findings suggest that there may be a risk of exposure to  Legionella  species not only in bathrooms but also in the areas surrounding asphalt roads. Therefore, the possibility of contracting legionellosis in daily life should be considered.    Supplementary Information  The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-021-02275-2.

bmc microbiology

Detection of Legionella species, the influence of precipitation on the amount of Legionella DNA, and bacterial microbiome in aerosols from outdoor sites near asphalt roads in Toyama Prefecture, Japan