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Background  Understanding the mechanisms by which diversity is maintained in pathogen populations is critical for epidemiological predictions. Life-history trade-offs have been proposed as a hypothesis for explaining long-term maintenance of variation in pathogen populations, yet the empirical evidence supporting trade-offs has remained mixed. This is in part due to the challenges of documenting successive pathogen life-history stages in many pathosystems. Moreover, little is understood of the role of natural enemies of pathogens on their life-history evolution.    Results  We characterize life-history-trait variation and possible trade-offs in fungal pathogen  Podosphaera plantaginis  infecting the host plant  Plantago lanceolata . We measured the timing of both asexual and sexual stages, as well as resistance to a hyperparasite of seven pathogen strains that vary in their prevalence in nature. We find significant variation among the strains in their life-history traits that constitute the infection cycle, but no evidence for trade-offs among pathogen development stages, apart from fast pathogen growth coninciding with fast hyperparasite growth. Also, the seemingly least fit pathogen strain was the most prevalent in the nature.    Conclusions  We conclude that in the nature environmental variation, and interactions with the antagonists of pathogens themselves may maintain variation in pathogen populations.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-019-1468-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Variation and correlations between sexual, asexual and natural enemy resistance life-history traits in a natural plant pathogen population