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Background  The evolution of male pregnancy is the most distinctive characteristic of syngnathids, and their specialized life history traits make syngnathid species excellent model species for many issues in biological evolution. However, the origin of syngnathids and the evolutionary divergence time of different syngnathid species remain poorly resolved. Comprehensive phylogenetic studies of the Syngnathidae will provide critical evidence to elucidate their origin, evolution, and dispersal patterns.    Results  We sequenced the mitochondrial genomes of eight syngnathid species in this study, and the estimated divergence times suggested that syngnathids diverged from other teleosts approximately 48.8 Mya during the Eocene period. Selection analysis showed that many mitochondrial genes of syngnathids exhibited significantly lower  Ka/Ks  values than those of other teleosts. The two most frequently used codons in syngnathid fishes were different from those in other teleosts, and a greater proportion of the mitochondrial simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were distributed in non-coding sequences in syngnathids compared with other teleosts.    Conclusions  Our study indicated that syngnathid fishes experienced an adaptive radiation process during the early explosion of species. Syngnathid mitochondrial OXPHOS genes appear to exhibit depressed  Ka/Ks  ratios compared with those of other teleosts, and this may suggest that their mitogenomes have experienced strong selective constraints to eliminate deleterious mutations.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-019-1430-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

bmc evolutionary biology

Complete mitochondrial genomes of eight seahorses and pipefishes (Syngnathiformes: Syngnathidae): insight into the adaptive radiation of syngnathid fishes