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Background  Sox ( S ry-related high-mobility-group b ox ) genes represent important factors in animal development. Relatively little, however, is known about the embryonic expression patterns and thus possible function(s) of Sox genes during ontogenesis in panarthropods (Arthropoda+Tardigrada+Onychophora). To date, studies have been restricted exclusively to higher insects, including the model system  Drosophila melanogaster , with no comprehensive data available for any other arthropod group, or any tardigrade or onychophoran.    Results  This study provides a phylogenetic analysis of panarthropod Sox genes and presents the first comprehensive analysis of embryonic expression patterns in the flour beetle  Tribolium castaneum  (Hexapoda), the pill millipede  Glomeris marginata  (Myriapoda), and the velvet worm,  Euperipatoides kanangrensis  (Onychophora). 24 Sox genes were identified and investigated: 7 in  Euperipatoides , 8 in  Glomeris , and 9 in  Tribolium . Each species possesses at least one ortholog of each of the five expected Sox gene families, B, C, D, E, and F, many of which are differentially expressed during ontogenesis.    Conclusion  Sox gene expression (and potentially function) is highly conserved in arthropods and their closest relatives, the onychophorans. Sox B, C and D class genes appear to be crucial for nervous system development, while the Sox B genes  Dichaete  ( D ) and  Sox21b  likely play an additional conserved role in panarthropod segmentation. The Sox B gene  Sox21a  likely has a conserved function in foregut and Malpighian tubule development, at least in Hexapoda. The data further suggest that Sox D and E genes are involved in mesoderm differentiation, and that Sox E genes are involved in gonadal development.  The new data expand our knowledge about the expression and implied function of Sox genes to Mandibulata (Myriapoda+Pancrustacea) and Panarthropoda (Arthropoda+Onychophora).    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1196-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

bmc evolutionary biology

Embryonic expression patterns and phylogenetic analysis of panarthropod sox genes: insight into nervous system development, segmentation and gonadogenesis