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Background  Previous phylogenetic analyses of primnoid octocorals utilizing morphological or molecular data have each recovered evolutionary relationships among genera that are largely incongruent with each other, with some exceptions. In an effort to reconcile molecular-based phylogenies with morphological characters, phylogenetic reconstructions were performed with 33 of 43 primnoid genera using four loci ( mtMutS, COI ,  28S and 18S ), and ancestral state reconstructions were performed using 9 taxonomically relevant characters. In addition, an updated illustrated key to the current 48 genus-level (43 genera, 5 subgenera) primnoids is presented.    Results  Ancestral state reconstruction recovered the ancestral colony shape of primnoids as dichotomous planar. Convergence was detected among all 9 characters, and reversals to the character state of the common ancestor occurred in 4 characters. However, some characters were found to be informative. For example, the weak ascus scale of  Metafannyella  is not likely homologous to the ascus scales of  Onogorgia  and  Fannyella , and the monophyly of two subgenera within  Thouarella , which contain polyps in either whorls or an isolated arrangement, was supported. Phylogenetic analyses were generally consistent with previous studies, and resulted in the synonymy of one genus and a subgenus, the elevation of two subgenera, and the transfer of two species back to an original genus. For example, body wall ornamentation of  Fanellia  was re-evaluated, indicating a synonymy with  Callogorgia ; the utility of polyp arrangement for the subgenus  Plumarella (Dicholaphis ) was not supported, and is synonymized with the nominate subgenus  Plumarella (Plumarella ); the subgenera  Plumarella  ( Faxiella ) and  Plumarell a ( Verticillata ) are raised to generic status; and the two  Plumarella  species ( P. diadema  and  P. undulata ) are transferred back to  Thouarella  based on the homology of their marginal scales.    Conclusions  Altogether, and similar to other octocorallian groups, these results indicate that many of the morphological characters examined among primnoids, particularly colony morphology, are labile and exhibit complex evolutionary histories. However, some morphological characters such as coordination of polyps, presence of the ascus body wall scale, number of rows of body wall scales, and number of marginal scales help identify many clades, and are suitable for robust systematic assessments among primnoids.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1182-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

bmc evolutionary biology

A phylogenetic analysis of the Primnoidae (Anthozoa: Octocorallia: Calcaxonia) with analyses of character evolution and a key to the genera and subgenera