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Background  Aquatic vascular plants are a distinctive group, differing from terrestrial plants in their growth forms and habitats. Among the various aquatic plant life forms, the evolutionary processes of freshwater submerged species are most likely distinct due to their exclusive occurrence in the discrete and patchy aquatic habitats. Using the chloroplast  trn L-F region sequence data, we investigated the phylogeographic structure of a submerged macrophyte,  Hydrilla verticillata , the single species in the genus  Hydrilla , throughout China, in addition to combined sample data from other countries to reveal the colonisation and diversification processes of this species throughout the world.    Results  We sequenced 681 individuals from 123 sampling locations throughout China and identified a significant phylogeographic structure (N ST  > G ST ,  p  < 0.01), in which four distinct lineages occurred in different areas. A high level of genetic differentiation among populations (global F ST  = 0.820) was detected. The divergence of  Hydrilla  was estimated to have occurred in the late Miocene, and the diversification of various clades was dated to the Pleistocene epoch. Biogeographic analyses suggested an East Asian origin of  Hydrilla  and its subsequent dispersal throughout the world.    Conclusions  The presence of all four clades in China indicates that China is most likely the centre of  Hydrilla  genetic diversity. The worldwide distribution of  Hydrilla  is due to recent vicariance and dispersal events that occurred in different clades during the Pleistocene. Our findings also provide useful information for the management of invasive  Hydrilla  in North America.    Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0381-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

bmc evolutionary biology

The phylogeographic structure of Hydrilla verticillata (Hydrocharitaceae) in China and its implications for the biogeographic history of this worldwide-distributed submerged macrophyte