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Background In order to reduce emissions of micropollutants (MPs) via effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), additional treatment steps are suggested and already deployed in selected WWTPs. Next to advanced oxidation processes, the application of powdered activated carbon (PAC) is considered a promising and suitable option as MP removal rates of 80% and more can be achieved. However, this method might also hold a drawback as a complete retention of PAC applied within the WWTP cannot always be guaranteed. Hence, small amounts of MP-loaded PAC can enter receiving waters with potentially negative consequences for aquatic organisms. The present study investigated possible effects of MP-loaded PAC from a WWTP as compared to unloaded, native PAC on the bivalve Corbicula  sp. in a 10-week exposure experiment. The PAC types were administered in concentrations of 1, 10 and 100 mg/L in a semi-static sediment–water system. Results Molecular biomarker responses for xenobiotic metabolism (i.e., glutathione-S-transferase (GST)) and oxidative stress (i.e., catalase (CAT) activity and lipid peroxidation) were analyzed and in none of the treatments, significant differences to the control could be detected, except for the CAT activity in the 1 mg/L PAC WWTP treatment. Moreover, the filtration rate of individual bivalves was measured after 5 and 10 weeks of exposure and compared to the initial filtration rate with the result that the presence of PAC did not affect the filtration rate of Corbicula  sp. In summary, despite the selection of sensitive endpoints and a comparatively long exposure period, no significant effects were detected for unloaded and MP-loaded PAC even at the highest test concentration, which is far away from environmental relevance. Conclusions These results give an auspicious perspective for the application of PAC in WWTPs. Even when small PAC leakages from WWTPs occur, adverse effects for aquatic organisms appear to be neglectable based on our findings.

Is micropollutant-loaded powdered activated carbon from a wastewater treatment plant toxic to the bivalve Corbicula sp.?