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Background  Mass insecticide treated bed net (ITN) deployment, and its associated coverage of populations at risk, had “pushed” a decline in malaria transmission. However, it is unknown whether malaria control is being enhanced by zooprophylaxis, i.e., mosquitoes diverted to feed on hosts different from humans, a phenomenon that could further reduce malaria entomological transmission risk in areas where livestock herding is common.    Methods  Between May and July 2009, we collected mosquitoes in 104 houses from three neighboring villages with high ITN coverage (over 80%), along Lake Victoria. We also performed a census of livestock in the area and georeferenced tethering points for all herds, as well as, mosquito larval habitats. Bloodmeal contents from sampled mosquitoes were analyzed, and each mosquito was individually tested for malaria sporozoite infections. We then evaluated the association of human density, ITN use, livestock abundance and larval habitats with mosquito abundance, bloodfeeding on humans and malaria sporozoite rate using generalized linear mixed effects models.    Results  We collected a total of 8123 mosquitoes, of which 1664 were  Anopheles  spp. malaria vectors over 295 household spray catches. We found that vector household abundance was mainly driven by the number of householders (P < 0.05), goats/sheep tethered around the house (P < 0.05) and ITNs, which halved mosquito abundance (P < 0.05). In general, similar patterns were observed for  Anopheles arabiensis , but not  An. gambiae s.s.  and  An. funestus s.s.,  whose density did not increase with the presence of livestock animals. Feeding on humans significantly increased in all species with the number of householders (P < 0.05), and only significantly decreased for  An. arabiensis  in the presence of cattle (P < 0.05). Only 26  Anopheles  spp. vectors had malaria sporozoites with the sporozoite rate significantly decreasing as the proportion of cattle feeding mosquitoes increased (P < 0.05).    Conclusion  Our data suggest that cattle, in settings with large ITN coverage, have the potential to drive an unexpected “push-pull” malaria control system, where  An. arabiensis  mosquitoes “pushed” out of human contact by ITNs are likely being further “pulled” by cattle.

Push by a net, pull by a cow: can zooprophylaxis enhance the impact of insecticide treated bed nets on malaria control?