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Background  In search of new antiparasitic agents for overcoming the limitations of current leishmaniasis chemotherapy, we have previously shown that 6-bromoindirubin-3 ' -oxime (6BIO) and several other 6-substituted analogues of indirubin, a naturally occurring bis-indole present in mollusks and plants, displayed reverse selectivity from the respective mammalian kinases, targeting more potently the leishmanial Cyclin-Dependent Kinase-1 (CDK1) homologue [cdc2-related protein kinase 3 ( L CRK3)] over leishmanial Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 ( L GSK-3). This reversal of selectivity in  Leishmania  parasites compared to mammalian cells makes the design of specific indirubin-based  L GSK-3 inhibitors difficult. In this context, the identification of compounds bearing specific substitutions that shift indirubin inhibition towards  L GSK-3, previously found to be a potential drug target, over  L CRK3 is imperative for antileishmanial targeted drug discovery.    Methods  A new in-house indirubin library, composed of 35 compounds, initially designed to target mammalian kinases (CDKs, GSK-3), was tested against  Leishmania donovani  promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes using the Alamar blue assay. Indirubins with antileishmanial activity were tested against  L GSK-3 and  L CRK3 kinases, purified from homologous expression systems. Flow cytometry (FACS) was used to measure the DNA content for cell-cycle analysis and the mode of cell death. Comparative structural analysis of the involved kinases was then performed using the Szmap algorithm.    Results  We have identified 7 new indirubin analogues that are selective inhibitors of  L GSK-3 over  L CRK3. These new inhibitors were also found to display potent antileishmanial activity with GI 50  values of <1.5 μΜ. Surprisingly, all the compounds that displayed enhanced selectivity towards  L GSK-3, were 6BIO analogues bearing an additional 3 ' -bulky amino substitution, namely a piperazine or pyrrolidine ring. A comparative structural analysis of the two aforementioned leishmanial kinases was subsequently undertaken to explain and rationalize the selectivity trend determined by the  in vitro  binding assays. Interestingly, the latter analysis showed that selectivity could be correlated with differences in kinase solvation thermo dynamics induced by minor sequence variations of the otherwise highly similar ATP binding pockets.    Conclusions  In conclusion, 3 ' -bulky amino substituted 6-BIO derivatives, which demonstrate enhanced specificity towards  L GSK-3, represent a new scaffold for targeted drug development to treat leishmaniasis.

parasites and vectors

An inhibitor-driven study for enhancing the selectivity of indirubin derivatives towards leishmanial Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 over leishmanial cdc2-related protein kinase 3