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Background  Little is known about the diversity, phylogenetic relationships, and biogeography of trypanosomes infecting non-mammalian hosts. In this study, we investigated the influence of host species and biogeography on shaping the genetic diversity, phylogenetic relationship, and distribution of trypanosomes from South American alligatorids and African crocodilids.    Methods  Small Subunit rRNA (SSU rRNA) and glycosomal Glyceraldehyde Phosphate Dehydrogenase (gGAPDH) genes were employed for phylogenetic inferences. Trypanosomes from crocodilians were obtained by haemoculturing. Growth behaviour, morphology, and ultrastructural features complement the molecular description of two new species strongly supported by phylogenetic analyses.    Results  The inferred phylogenies disclosed a strongly supported crocodilian-restricted clade comprising three subclades. The subclade  T. grayi  comprised the African  Trypanosoma grayi  from  Crocodylus niloticus  and tsetse flies. The subclade  T. ralphi  comprised alligatorid trypanosomes represented by  Trypanosoma ralphi  n. sp .  from  Melanosuchus niger, Caiman crocodilus  and  Caiman yacare  from Brazilian river basins.  T. grayi  and  T. ralphi  were sister subclades. The basal subclade  T. terena  comprised alligatorid trypanosomes represented by  Trypanosoma terena  n. sp. from  Ca. yacare  sharing hosts and basins with the distantly genetic related  T. ralphi.  This subclade also included the trypanosome from  Ca. crocodilus  from the Orinoco basin in Venezuela and, unexpectedly, a trypanosome from the African crocodilian  Osteolaemus tetraspis .    Conclusion  The close relationship between South American and African trypanosomes is consistent with paleontological evidence of recent transoceanic dispersal of  Crocodylus  at the Miocene/Pliocene boundaries (4–5 mya), and host-switching of trypanosomes throughout the geological configuration of South American hydrographical basins shaping the evolutionary histories of the crocodilians and their trypanosomes.

parasites and vectors

The phylogeography of trypanosomes from South American alligatorids and African crocodilids is consistent with the geological history of South American river basins and the transoceanic dispersal of Crocodylus at the Miocene