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Background  With the rapid spread of pyrethroid resistance in the main malaria vectors from Benin and the various resistance mechanisms involved (metabolic resistance and knock-down resistance ( kdr ), it is important to foresee effective resistance management strategies. Thus, the knowledge of the insensitive acetylcholinesterase ( ace-1 R) effects on phenotypes of  An. gambiae  will help us to strengthen basic and operational research on thedevelopment of strategies that will use organophosphates or carbamates as alternatives against pyrethroids-resistant malaria vectors in the field.    Methods   Larvae and pupae of  Anopheles gambiae s.l.  mosquitoes were collected from the breeding sites in Ouemé, Atacora, and Alibori departments. CDC susceptibility tests were conducted on unfed female mosquitoes aged 2–5 days old. CDC bioassays were performed with stock solutions of fenitrothion (50 μg per bottle) and bendiocarb (12.5 μg per bottle). PCR techniques were used to detect species and  Ace-1  mutations.    Results    Anopheles gambiae  Seme and Kandi populations were susceptible to fenitrothion whereas  Anopheles gambiae  Tanguieta and Malanville populations were resistant.  An. gambiae  populations from Seme, Kandi and Malanville were fully susceptible to bendiocarb whereas those from Tanguieta have developed a strong resistance to the same insecticide. A slight decrease in mortality rate was observed with 97.91% in populations of mosquitoes from Malanville. PCR revealed that all specimens tested were  Anopheles gambiae s.s..   The presence of  Ace-1R  at very low frequency (0.01) was observed in  Anopheles gambiae  Malanville populations.    Conclusion  This study demonstrated the need to monitor organophosphate (OPs) and Carbamates resistance among populations of the  An. gambiae s.l.  in Benin, to determine its spread and anticipate vector control failure where these insecticides are used. However, further studies are needed to understand the current distribution of the  Ace-1R  mutation in other localities in the south-north transect Benin.

Status of organophosphate and carbamate resistance in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato from the south and north Benin, West Africa