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Background  Owing to pyrethroid resistance in  An .  gambiae , the carbamate and organophosphate insecticides are currently regarded as alternatives or supplements to pyrethroids for use on mosquito net treatments. Resistance monitoring is therefore essential to investigate the susceptibility of  An .  gambiae s . l  to these alternative products.    Methods  Two to three day old adult female Anopheles mosquitoes were reared from larvae collected in the five districts (Kouandé, Natitingou, Matéri, Péhunco, Tanguiéta) of the Atacora department. Mosquitoes were then exposed to WHO impregnated papers. The four treatments consisted of: carbamates (0.1% bendiocarb, 0.1% propoxur) and organophosphates (0.25% pirimiphosmethyl, 1% fenitrothion). PCR assays were run to determine the members of the  An .  gambiae  complex, the molecular forms (M) and (S), as well as phenotypes for insensitive acetylcholinesterase (AChE1) due to  ace - 1   R   mutation.    Results  Bioassays showed bendiocarb resistance in all populations of  An .  gambiae s . s . tested. Propoxur resistance was observed in Matéri, Péhunco and Tanguiéta, while it was suspected in Kouandé and Natitingou. As for the organophosphates, susceptibility to pirimiphos-methyl was assessed in all populations. Fenitrothion resistance was detected in Kouandé, Péhunco and Tanguiéta, while it was suspected in Matéri and Natitingou. The S-form was predominant in tested samples (94.44%). M and S molecular forms were sympatric but no M/S hybrids were detected. The  ace - 1   R   mutation was found in both S and M molecular forms with frequency from 3.6 to 12%. Although the homozygous resistant genotype was the most prevalent genotype among survivors, the genotypes could not entirely explain the bioassay results.    Conclusion  Evidence of bendiocarb resistance in  An .  gambiae  populations is a clear indication that calls for the implementation of insecticide resistance management strategies. The  ace - 1   R   mutation could not entirely explain the resistance to bendiocarb observed and is highly suggestive of involvement of other resistance mechanisms such as metabolic detoxification.

Bendiocarb resistance in Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations from Atacora department in Benin, West Africa: a threat for malaria vector control