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Background   Anopheles gambiae ,  An. arabiensis , and  An. funestus  are widespread malaria vectors in Africa.  Anopheles rivulorum  is the next most widespread species in the  An. funestus  group. The role of  An. rivulorum  as a malaria vector has not been fully studied, although it has been found to be a minor or opportunistic transmitter of  Plasmodium falciparum .    Methods  Mosquitoes were collected indoors over a 12-hour period using a light source attached to a rotating bottle collector in order to determine peak activity times and to provide DNA for meal source identification. Gravid female mosquitoes were collected indoors via an aspirator to generate F1 progeny for testing insecticidal susceptibility. Blood meal sources were identified using a multiplexed PCR assay for human and bovine cytochrome-B, and by matching sequences generated with primers targeting vertebrate and mammalian cytochrome-B segments to the Genbank database.    Results   Anopheles rivulorum  fed on human blood in the early evening between 18:00 and 20:00, when insecticide-treated bed nets are not in use, and the presence of  Plasmodium falciparum  sporozoites in 0.70% of the  An. rivulorum  individuals tested was demonstrated. Susceptibility to permethrin, deltamethrin, and DDT is higher in  An. rivulorum  (84.8%, 91.4%, and 100%, respectively) than in  An. funestus  s.s. (36.8%, 36.4%, and 70%, respectively), whereas mortality rates for propoxur and fenitrothion were 100% for both species. Resistance to pyrethroids was very high in  An. funestus  s.s. and the potential of the development of high resistance was suspected in  An. rivulorum .    Conclusion  Given the tendency for  An. rivulorum  to be active early in the evening, the presence of  P. falciparum  in the species, and the potential for the development of pyrethroid resistance, we strongly advocate reconsideration of the latent ability of this species as an epidemiologically important malaria vector.

parasites and vectors

Reconsideration of Anopheles rivulorum as a vector of Plasmodium falciparum in western Kenya: some evidence from biting time, blood preference, sporozoite positive rate, and pyrethroid resistance