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Background  The current status of insecticide resistance and the underlying resistance mechanisms were studied in the major vector of malaria,  Anopheles culicifacies , and the secondary vector,  Anopheles subpictus  in five districts (Anuradhapura, Kurunegala, Moneragala, Puttalam and Trincomalee) of Sri Lanka. Eight other anophelines,  Anopheles annularis, Anopheles barbirostris, Anopheles jamesii, Anopheles nigerrimus, Anopheles peditaeniatus, Anopheles tessellatus, Anopheles vagus  and  Anopheles varuna  from Anuradhapura district were also tested.    Methods  Adult females were exposed to the WHO discriminating dosages of DDT, malathion, fenitrothion, propoxur, λ-cyhalothrin, cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin and etofenprox. The presence of metabolic resistance by esterase, glutathione S-transferase (GST) and monooxygenase-based mechanisms, and the sensitivity of the acetylcholinesterase target site were assessed using synergists, and biochemical, and metabolic techniques.    Results  All the anopheline species had high DDT resistance. All  An. culicifacies  and  An. subpictus  populations were resistant to malathion, except  An. culicifacies  from Kurunegala, where there was no malathion carboxylesterase activity. Kurunegala and Puttalam populations of  An. culicifacies  were susceptible to fenitrothion. All the  An. culicifacies  populations were susceptible to carbamates. Both species were susceptible to the discriminating dosages of cypermethrin and cyfluthrin, but had different levels of resistance to other pyrethroids. Of the 8 other anophelines, only  An. nigerrimus  and  An. peditaeniatus  were resistant to all the insecticides tested, probably due to their high exposure to the insecticides used in agriculture.  An. vagus  showed some resistance to permethrin.  Esterases, GSTs and monooxygenases were elevated in both  An. culicifacies  and  An. subpictus . AChE was most sensitive to insecticides in Kurunegala and Trincomalee  An. culicifacies  populations and highly insensitive in the Trincomalee  An. subpictus  population.    Conclusion  The complexity of the resistance segregating in these field populations underlines the need for new molecular tools to identify the genomic diversity, differential upregulation and different binding specificities of resistance conferring genes, and the presence of different subspecies with different vectorial capacities.

malaria journal

Multiple insecticide resistance mechanisms involving metabolic changes and insensitive target sites selected in anopheline vectors of malaria in Sri Lanka