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Background  Molecular markers of insecticide resistance can provide sensitive indicators of resistance development in malaria vector populations. Monitoring of insecticide resistance in vector populations is an important component of current malaria control programmes. Knockdown resistance ( kdr ) confers resistance to the pyrethroid class of insecticides with cross-resistance to DDT through single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene.    Methods  To enable detection of  kdr  mutations at low frequency a method was developed that uses polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based technology, allowing rapid, reliable and cost-effective testing of large numbers of individual mosquitoes. This was used to assay mosquitoes from sites in lower Moshi, Tanzania.    Results  Sequence-specific oligonucleotide probes (SSOP) were used for simultaneous detection of both East and West African  kdr  mutations with high specificity and sensitivity. Application of the SSOP-ELISA method to 1,620 field-collected  Anopheles arabiensis  from Tanzania identified the West African leucine-phenylalanine  kdr  mutation in two heterozygous individuals, indicating the potential for resistance development that requires close monitoring.    Conclusion  The presence of the West African  kdr  mutation at low frequency in this East African population of  An. arabiensis  has implications for the spread of the  kdr  gene across the African continent.

malaria journal

Occurrence of the leucine-to-phenylalanine knockdown resistance (kdr) mutation in Anopheles arabiensis populations in Tanzania, detected by a simplified high-throughput SSOP-ELISA method