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Background  Insecticide resistance monitoring is essential to help national programmers to implement more effective and sustainable malaria control strategies in endemic countries. This study reported the spatial and seasonal variations of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors in Benin, West Africa.    Methods   Anopheles gambiae s.l  populations were collected from October 2008 to June 2010 in four sites selected on the basis of different use of insecticides and environment. WHO susceptibility tests were carried out to detect resistance to DDT, fenitrothion, bendiocarb, permethrin and deltamethrin. The synergist piperonyl butoxide was used to assess the role of non-target site mechanisms in pyrethroid resistance.  Anopheles gambiae  mosquitoes were identified to species and to molecular M and S forms using PCR techniques. Molecular and biochemical assays were carried out to determine  kdr  and  Ace.1 R   allelic frequencies and activity of the detoxification enzymes.    Results  Throughout the surveys very high levels of mortality to bendiocarb and fenitrothion were observed in  An. gambiae s.l . populations. However, high frequencies of resistance to DDT and pyrethroids were seen in both M and S form of  An. gambiae s.s . and  Anopheles arabiensis . PBO increased the toxicity of permethrin and restored almost full susceptibility to deltamethrin.  Anopheles gambiae s.l . mosquitoes from Cotonou and Malanville showed higher oxidase activity compared to the Kisumu susceptible strain in 2009, whereas the esterase activity was higher in the mosquitoes from Bohicon in both 2008 and 2009. A high frequency of  1014F kdr  allele was initially showed in  An. gambiae  from Cotonou and Tori-Bossito whereas it increased in mosquitoes from Bohicon and Malanville during the second year. For the first time the  L1014S kdr  mutation was found in  An. arabiensis  in Benin. The  ace.1 R   mutation was almost absent  in An. gambiae s.l .    Conclusion  Pyrethroid and DDT resistance is widespread in malaria vector in Benin and both metabolic and target site resistance are implicated. Resistance was not correlated with a change of malaria species and/or molecular forms. The  1014S kdr  allele was first identified in wild population of  An. arabiensis  hence confirming the expansion of pyrethroid resistance alleles in Africa.

malaria journal

Dynamics of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors in Benin: first evidence of the presence of L1014S kdr mutation in Anopheles gambiae from West Africa