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Background  One of the most intriguing questions in evolutionary developmental biology is how an insect acquires a mimicry pattern within its body parts. A striking example of pattern mimicry is found in the pattern diversity of moth and butterfly wings, which is thought to evolve from preexisting elements illustrated by the nymphalid ground plan (NGP). Previous studies demonstrated that individuality of the NGP facilitates the decoupling of associated common elements, leading to divergence. In contrast, recent studies on the concept of modularity have argued the importance of a combination of coupling and decoupling of the constituent elements. Here, we examine the modularity of a mimicry wing pattern in a moth and explore an evolvable characteristic of the NGP.    Results  This study examined the wings of the noctuid moth  Oraesia excavata , which closely resemble leaves with a leaf venation pattern. Based on a comparative morphological procedure, we found that this leaf pattern was formed by the NGP common elements. Using geometric morphometrics combined with network analysis, we found that each of the modules in the leaf pattern integrates the constituent components of the leaf venation pattern (i.e., the main and lateral veins). Moreover, the detected modules were established by coupling different common elements and decoupling even a single element into different modules. The modules of the  O .  excavata  wing pattern were associated with leaf mimicry, not with the individuality of the NGP common elements. For comparison, we also investigated the modularity of a nonmimetic pattern in the noctuid moth  Thyas juno . Quantitative analysis demonstrated that the modules of the  T .  juno  wing pattern regularly corresponded to the individuality of the NGP common elements, unlike those in the  O .  excavata  wing pattern.    Conclusions  This study provides the first evidence for modularity in a leaf mimicry pattern. The results suggest that the evolution of this pattern involves coupling and decoupling processes to originate these modules, free from the individuality of the NGP system. We propose that this evolution has been facilitated by a versatile characteristic of the NGP, allowing the association of freely modifiable subordinate common elements to make modules.

Modularity of a leaf moth-wing pattern and a versatile characteristic of the wing-pattern ground plan