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It is well established through field observations, experiments, and chemical models that oxidation (redox) state and pH exert a strong influence on the speciation of dissolved components and the solubility of minerals in hydrothermal fluids. log <graphic file="1467-4866-3-56-i1.gif"/>–pH diagrams were used to depict the influence of oxygen fugacity and pH on monocarboxylate- and dicarboxylate-transport of Pb and Zn in low-temperature (100°C) hydrothermal ore fluids that are related to diagenetic processes in deep sedimentary basins, and allow a first-order comparison of Pb and Zn transport among proposed model fluids for Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) and red-bed related base metal (RBRBM) deposits in terms of their approximate pH and <graphic file="1467-4866-3-56-i1.gif"/> conditions. To construct these diagrams, total Pb and Zn concentrations and Pb and Zn speciation were calculated as a function of log <graphic file="1467-4866-3-56-i1.gif"/> and pH for a composite ore-brine with concentrations of major elements, total sulfur, and total carbonate that approximate the composition of MVT and RBRBM model ore fluids and modern basinal brines. In addition to acetate and malonate complexation, complexes involving the ligands Cl-, HS-, H2S, and OH- were included in the model of calculated total metal concentration and metal speciation. Also, in the model, Zn and Pb are competing with the common-rock forming metals Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, and Al for the same ligands. Calculated total Pb concentration and calculated total Zn concentration are constrained by galena and sphalerite solubility, respectively. Isopleths, in log <graphic file="1467-4866-3-56-i1.gif"/>–pH space, of the concentration of Pb and concentration of Zn in carboxylate (acetate + malonate) complexes illustrate that the oxidized model fluids of T. H. Giordano (in <it>Organic Acids in Geological Processes</it>, ed. E. D. Pittman and M. D. Lewan, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1994, pp. 319–354) and G. M. Anderson (<it>Econ. Geol</it>., 1975, 70, 937–942) are capable of transporting sufficient amounts of Pb (up to 10 ppm) and Zn (up to 100 ppm) in the form of carboxylate complexes to form economic deposits of these metals. On the other hand, the reduced ore fluid models of D. A. Sverjensky (<it>Econ. Geol</it>., 1984, 79, 23–37) and T. H. Giordano and H. L. Barnes <it>(Econ. Geol</it>., 1981, 76, 2200–2211) can at best transport amounts of Pb and Zn, as carboxylate complexes, that are many orders of magnitude below the 1 to 10 ppm minimum required to form economic deposits. Lead and zinc speciation (mol% of total Pb or Zn) in the model ore fluid was calculated at specific log <graphic file="1467-4866-3-56-i1.gif"/>–pH conditions along the 100, 0.01, and 0.001 ppm total Pb and total Zn isopleths. Along the 100 ppm isopleth conditions are oxidized (∑SO4 >> ∑H2S) with Pb and Zn predominantly in the form of chloride complexes under acid to mildly alkaline conditions (pH from 3 to approximately 7.5), while hydroxide complexes dominate Pb and Zn speciation under more alkaline conditions. Sulfide complexes are insignificant under these oxidized conditions. For more reduced conditions along the 0.01 and 0.001 ppm isopleths chloride complexes dominate Pb and Zn speciation in the SO42- field and near the SO42--reduced sulfur boundary from pH = 4 to approximately 7.5, while hydroxide complexes dominate Pb and Zn speciation under alkaline conditions above pH = 7.5 in the SO42- field. In the most reduced fluids (∑H2S >> ∑SO4) along the 0.01 and 0.001 isopleths, sulfide complexes account for almost 100% of the Pb and Zn in the model fluid. Acetate (monocarboxylate) complexation is significant only under conditions of chloride and hydroxide complex dominance and its effect is maximized in the pH range 5 to 7, where it complexes 2 to 2.6% of the total Pb and 1 to 1.25% of the total Zn. Malonate (dicarboxylate) complexes are insignificant along all isopleths. The speciation results from this study show that deep formation waters characterized by temperatures near 100°C, high oxidation states and ∑H2S < 0.03 mg L-1 (<graphic file="1467-4866-3-56-i2.gif"/> < 10-6), high chlorinities (~ 1 mg L-1), and high but reasonable concentrations of carboxylate anions can mobilize up to 3% of the total Pb and up to 1.3% of the total Zn as carboxylate complexes. Furthermore, these percentages, under the most favorable conditions, correspond to approximately 1 to 100 ppm of these metals in solution; concentrations that are adequate to form economic deposits of these metals. However, the field evidence suggests that all of these optimum conditions for carboxylate complexation are rarely met at the same time. A comparison of the composite ore fluid compositions from this study and modern brine data shows that the ore brines, corresponding to log <graphic file="1467-4866-3-56-i1.gif"/>–pH conditions based on the Anderson (1975) and Giordano (1994) model fluids, are similar in many respects to modern, high trace-metal petroleum-field brines. The principal differences between modern high trace-metal brines and the composite ore fluids of Anderson (1975) and Giordano (1994) relate to their carboxylate anion content. The reported concentrations of monocarboxylate anions (∑monocbx) and dicarboxylate anions (Edicbx) in high trace-metal petroleum-field brines (< 1 to 300 mg L-1 and < 1 mg L-1, respectively) are significantly lower than the concentrations assumed in the modelled brines of this study (∑monocbx = 7 700 mg L-1 and ∑dicbx = 300 mg L-1). There are also major differences in the corresponding total chloride to carboxylate ratio (∑<it>m</it>Cl/∑<it>m</it>cbx) and monocarboxylate to dicarboxylate ratio (∑<it>m</it>monocbx/∑<it>m</it>dicbx). Modern high trace-metal brines have much higher ∑<it>m</it>Cl/∑<it>m</it>cbx values and, therefore, the contribution of carboxylate complexes to the total Pb and Zn content in these modern brines is likely to be significantly less than the 1 to 3 percent for the composite ore fluids of Anderson (1975) and Giordano (1994). The composite ore-brine based on the Giordano and Barnes (1981) MVT ore fluid is comparable to the high salinity (> 170 000 mg L-1 TDS) subset of modern brines characterized by low trace-metal content and high total reduced sulfur (∑H2S). A comparison of the Sverjensky (1984) composite ore-brine with modern petroleum-field brines in terms of ∑H2S and Zn content, reveals that this ore fluid corresponds to a "border-type" brine, between modern high trace-metal brines and those with low trace-metal content and high ∑H2S. A brine of this type is characterized by values of ∑H2S, ∑Zn, and/or ∑Pb within or near the 1 to 10 mg L-1 range. Based on brine-composition data from numerous references cited in this paper, border-type brines do exist but are rare. The model results and field evidence presented in this study are consistent with other chemical simulation studies of carboxylate complexation in modern petroleum-field brines. Thus, it appears that carboxylate complexation plays a minor, if not insignificant, role as a transport mechanism for Pb and Zn in high salinity Na–Cl and Na–Ca–Cl basinal brines and related ore fluids.</p

geochemical transactions

Transport of Pb and Zn by carboxylate complexes in basinal ore fluids and related petroleum-field brines at 100 °C: the influence of pH and oxygen fugacity