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Modeling studies have shown that surface air temperature (SAT) increase in response to an increase in the atmospheric CO 2  concentration is larger over land than over ocean. This so-called land–ocean warming contrast,  φ , defined as the land–mean SAT change divided by the ocean-mean SAT change, is a striking feature of global warming. Small heat capacity over land is unlikely the sole cause because the land-ocean warming contrast is found in the equilibrium state of CO 2  doubling experiments.  Several different mechanisms have been proposed to explain the land–ocean warming contrast, but the comprehensive understanding has not yet been obtained. In Part I of this study, we propose a framework to diagnose  φ  based on energy budgets at the top of atmosphere and for the atmosphere, which enables the decomposition of contributions from effective radiative forcing (ERF), climate feedback, heat capacity, and atmospheric energy transport anomaly to  φ . Using this framework, we analyzed the SAT response to an abrupt CO 2  quadrupling using 15 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) Earth system models. In the near-equilibrium state (years 121-150),  φ  is 1.49 ± 0.11, which is primarily induced by the land–ocean difference in ERF and heat capacity. We found that contributions from ERF, feedback, and energy transport anomaly tend to cancel each other, leading to a small inter-model spread of  φ  compared to the large spread of individual components. In the equilibrium state without heat capacity contribution, ERF and energy transport anomaly are the major contributors to  φ , which shows a weak negative correlation with the equilibrium climate sensitivity.

journal of climate

An energy budget framework to understand mechanisms of land–ocean warming contrast induced by increasing greenhouse gases Part I: Near-equilibrium state