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The nonlinear behavior of quasi-stationary planetary waves excited by midlatitude orographic forcing is considered in a three-dimensional primitive equation model that includes a representation of the Hadley circulation. The Hadley circulation is forced by Newtonian cooling to a zonally symmetric reference temperature and vertical diffusion on the zonally symmetric component of the flow. To quantify the effect of the Hadley circulation on wave propagation, breaking, and nonlinear reflection, an initial state with no meridional flow, but with the same zonal flow as the Hadley state, is also considered. In order to allow the propagation of large-scale waves over extended periods, Rayleigh friction is applied at low levels to delay the onset of baroclinic instability. As in the absence of a Hadley circulation, the waves in the Hadley state propagate toward low latitudes where the background flow is weak and the waves are therefore likely to break. Potential vorticity fields on isentropic surfaces ar...

Effect of the Hadley Circulation on the Reflection of Planetary Waves in Three-Dimensional Tropospheric Flows