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People with grapheme–color synesthesia associate numbers and letters with colors. Each grapheme is typically associated with a specific color, but the cause of these pairings is unknown. A useful clue is that the pairings are consistent among people who use the same language, but differ across languages. Here, we show that synesthetes’ exposure to written language guides the grapheme–color associations that they form. Specifically, we found that among English-, Spanish-, and German-speaking synesthetes, the hue associated with a letter is strongly correlated with the frequency of that letter in written language. Letters that are more frequent are associated with red, orange, and yellow; less frequent letters are associated with green, blue, and violet. Conversely, when asked to assign a color to each letter, non-synesthetes associated colors with letters differently, showing a weak correlation between letter frequency and hue and often assigning colors by semantic and orthographic association (e.g., Y/yellow or A/apple/red). This provides evidence that synesthetic associations are distinct from those of the general population. In light of previous work, these results suggest that synesthetic associations between graphemes and colors originate from exposure to text, fossilize in childhood, and remain stable throughout life. Synesthetic associations 1

Frequency-Based Synesthetic Associations between Letters and Colors