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Some military theorists define military symmetry not in terms of quantitative parity but in terms of qualitative similarity. According to Herfried Munkler from the Berlin-based Humboldt University, forces are symmetric when they recruit, arm, and train their combatants in a similar way. In the days of Carl von Clausewitz (1780–1831), wars were seen from an essentially state-centric perspective: In the pursuit of their national interests, states fought other states. European armed forces began to transform into symmetrical state armies in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and symmetrical warfare continued to characterize European wars until the twentieth century. Historically, symmetrical warfare was not the norm, but rather a European anomaly. Munkler states that Europe’s exceptionalism in this respect might be coming to an end. Today’s protracted low-intensity wars seem to point back towards the era of asymmetrical warfare. This development is obviously closely linked to the phenomenon of state failure in Third World countries, in southern regions of the former USSR, and in the Western Balkans.

Russia’s Asymmetric Wars in Chechnya since 1994